Australia
Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia (Report, updated 2024).
This report usefully compiles and summarises current statistics on family violence, domestic violence and sexual violence from multiple sources. Its key points are:
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1 in 7 women who experienced violence by a current partner and were pregnat during the relationship experienced violence during their pregnancy
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Pregnant women assaulted by a partner were more likely to experience injury to their trunk thank other women (48% compared with 29%)
There can be a range of negative health impacts associated with this violence, including lack of autonomy in reproductive choice, unintended pregnancies, abortions, higher rates of miscarriage, delayed prenatal care, pre-term birth (before 37 completed weeks of gestation) and low birthweight (less than 2,500 grams).
Pregnancy and the early post-natal period, is a time of heightened risk for the onset or escalation of partner violence.
Boxall H & Morgan A 2021. Who is most at risk of physical and sexual partner violence and coercive control during the COVID-19 pandemic?. Trends & issues in crime and criminal justice no. 618. Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology.
Abstract: In this study, data was analysed from a survey of Australian women (n=9,284) to identify women at the highest risk of physical and sexual violence and coercive control during the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic.
Logistic regression modelling identified that specific groups of women were more likely than the general population to have experienced physical and sexual violence in the past three months. These were Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander women, women aged 18–24, women with a restrictive health condition, pregnant women and women in financial stress. Similar results were identified for coercive control, and the co-occurrence of both physical/sexual violence and coercive control.
These results show that domestic violence during the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic was not evenly distributed across the Australian community, but more likely to occur among particular groups.
Campo, Monica, Domestic and family violence in pregnancy and early parenthood: Overview and emerging interventions (CFCA Practitioner Resources, Australian Institute of Family Studies, 2015).
This practitioner resource contains information on risk factors for domestic and family violence for young women and women in pregnancy and early parenthood. It contains the following key points:
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Women are at an increased risk of experiencing violence from an intimate partner during pregnancy.
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If domestic and family violence already exists, it is likely to increase in severity during pregnancy.
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Young women, aged 18–24 years, are more likely to experience domestic and family violence during pregnancy.
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Unintended pregnancy is often an outcome of an existing abusive relationship.
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Poor birth outcomes (such as low birth weight, premature birth) and post-natal depression are associated with domestic and family violence during pregnancy.
The long-term effects of exposure to domestic and family violence in utero are emerging.
Meuleners, Lynn B, et al, ‘Maternal and Foetal Outcomes among Pregnant Women Hospitalised due to Interpersonal Violence: A Population Based Study in Western Australia, 2002-2008’ (2011) 11 BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth 70.
A total of 468 pregnant women were hospitalised in Western Australia for an incident of interpersonal violence during the study period, and 3,744 randomly selected pregnant women were included as the comparison group. The majority of violent events were perpetrated by the pregnant women's partner or spouse. Pregnant Indigenous women were over-represented accounting for 67% of all hospitalisations due to violence and their risk of experiencing adverse maternal outcomes was significantly increased compared to non-Indigenous women. Pregnant women hospitalised for an incident of interpersonal violence sustained almost double the risk for adverse maternal complications than the non-exposed group. The overall risk for adverse foetal complications for pregnant women exposed to violence was increased two-fold.
Ogbo, Felix Akpojene, John Eastwood, Alexandra Hendry, Bin Jalaludin, Kingsley E Agho, Bryanne Barnett and Andrew Page, ‘Determinants of Antenatal Depression and Postnatal Depression in Australia’ (2018) 18(49) BMC Psychiatry (online).
This article considers the causes of antenatal and postnatal depression in Australia. The results of the study indicate that a history of intimate partner violence, both physical and psychological, is associated with depressive symptoms (p 3). Further, IPV was one of the ‘strongest risk factors for antenatal depressive symptoms’ (p 5).
Price E., Sharman HA., Sheeran N. and Dingle GA (2022) ‘Experiences of reproductive coercion in Queensland women’, Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 37(5-6) doi: 10.1177/0886260519846851
Reproductive coercion was reported among 5.9% of women at first contact and 18% of the repeat contacts in a study of 3,100 Queensland woman who contacted a telephone counselling and information service regarding an unplanned pregnancy between January 2015 and July 2017.
Sharman LS., Douglas H., Price E. and Dingle GA (2018) ‘Associations between unintended pregnancy, domestic violence, and sexual assault in a population of Queensland women’, Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 26(4): 541-552 doi: 10.1080/13218719.2018.1510347
In a study of 6,200 women seeking information regarding termination of unintended pregnancies in Queensland between July 2012 and June 2017 12% of first contacts with a service disclosed domestic violence and 3% disclosed sexual assault.
Sheeran N., Vallury K., Sharman L.S., Corbin B., Douglas H., Bernardino B., Hach M., Coombe L., Keramidopoulos S., Torres-Quiazon R. and Tarzia L. (2022) ‘Reproductive coercion and abuse among pregnancy counselling clients in Australia: trends and directions’, Reproductive Health, 19 doi: 10.1186/s12978-022-01479-7
Reproductive coercion and abuse may include behaviours that are pregnancy promoting or pregnancy preventing (including coerced abortion). This study of around 5,100 clients who sought counselling support for pregnancy from two specific providers in Australia between January 2018 and December 2020 investigated the reporting of reproductive coercion and abuse. 15% of clients reported reproductive coercion and abuse:
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6% to promote pregnancy
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7.5% to prevent pregnancy
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1.9% to promote and prevent pregnancy
Taft AJ., Powell RL., Watson LF., Lucke JC., Mazza D. and McNamee K. (2019) ‘Factors associated with induced abortion over time: Secondary data analysis of five waves of the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women’s Health’, Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, 43(2): 137-142 doi: 10.1111/1753-6405.12874
Drawing on data from the Australian Longitudinal Study on Women’s Health this research examined factors associated with abortions undertaken for non-medical reasons. The analysis focused on data from the 1972-1978 birth cohort after five surveys and included data for 9,021 women. Findings indicated that:
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women who reported recent intimate partner violence were twice as likely to terminate a pregnancy than women who did not experience intimate partner violence
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the experience of any interpersonal violence, including recent or past partner violence, and non-partner violence, significantly increased the likelihood of terminating a pregnancy.
Walsh, Deborah, ‘The Hidden Experience of Violence During Pregnancy: A Study of 400 Pregnant Australian Women’ (2008) 14(1) Australian Journal of Primary Health.
This study recruited and interviewed 400 women from the Royal Women’s Hospital Antenatal clinic in Melbourne, measuring indicators of physical and psychological abuse. It found that 20% of participants reported experiencing violence during their pregnancy (p101), and 6% reported violence increasing during their pregnancy, although most women reported violence and abuse remained the same throughout the pregnancy.
International
Chibber, Karuna et al, ‘The Role of Intimate Partners in Women’s Reasons for Seeking Abortion’ (2014) 24(1) Women’s Health Issues e131.
Using baseline data from the Turnaway Study, a longitudinal study among women (n = 954) seeking abortion at 30 U.S. facilities between 2008 and 2010, this study reports findings that 8 per cent of women reported abusive partners as the reason for seeking an abortion, due to concerns the abuse would continue after childbirth (thus effecting the child) and that having a child would inhibit the women leaving the relationship (p e134). Some women also referred to being pressured to get an abortion, and others, being forced to become pregnant. The article goes on to note on p e136 however, that only a small percentage of women ‘identified having abusive partners as a reason for seeking abortion. Importantly, those identifying abusive partners as a reason for seeking abortion did not describe their partner as threatening or physically hurting them as a way of forcing them to have an abortion. Instead, their descriptions suggest that the women independently decided to seek abortions, perceiving this as their best option to end abusive relationships’.
Moore, Ann M, Lori Frohwirth and Elizabeth Miller, ‘Male Reproductive Control of Women Who Have Experienced Intimate Partner Violence in the United States’ (2010) 70 Social Science and Medicine 1737.
This article provides a concise overview of the literature, establishing a variety of reproductively coercive behaviours men may engage in, pre-, during, and post-pregnancy. The article goes on to discuss findings from interviews with 71 women aged 18-49, who reported a history of IPV. Findings include that 53 respondents (74%) experienced male reproductive control, including ‘pregnancy-promoting behaviours’ (e.g. sabotaging contraception, forced sex), abuse during the pregnancy, and attempts to influence the pregnancy outcome.
Nesari M., Olson J.K., Vandermeer B., Slater L., Olson D.M., ‘Does a maternal history of abuse before pregnancy affect pregnancy outcomes? A systematic review with meta-analysis’ (2018) 18(1) BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth 404.
The study aims to examine the connection between maternal histories of abuse before pregnancy and the risk of pre-term delivery and low birth weight. An analysis of 16 articles demonstrated that women who were abused prior to pregnancy have an increased risk of pre-term birth and low birth weight, with the highest level of risk associated with victims of childhood abuse. The authors suggest that possible explanations for these findings include: 1) cumulative life stress; 2) associated high risk behaviors including smoking, drug or alcohol abuse; 3) decreased family support; and 4) decreased prenatal care. The authors suggest that greater care should be taken to identify maternal history of abuse before pregnancy, and to use this information to inform risk assessment for adverse pregnancy outcomes.
Roberts, Sarah CM, et al, ‘Risk of Violence from the Man Involved in the Pregnancy After Receiving or Being Denied an Abortion’ (2014) 12 BMC Medicine 144.
Using data from the Turnaway Study, a longitudinal study among women seeking abortion at 30 U.S. facilities between 2008 and 2010, this study explored whether the risk of intimate partner violence decreased after having an abortion. It found that: ‘Among women seeking abortion, having an abortion was associated with a reduction over time in physical violence from the MIP [man involved in the pregnancy], while carrying the pregnancy to term was not. Terminating an unwanted pregnancy may allow women to avoid physical violence from the MIP, while having a baby from an unwanted pregnancy appears to result in sustained physical violence over time’ (p148).
Vivienne, Elizabeth, ‘Custody Stalking: A Mechanism of Coercively Controlling Mothers Following Separation’ (2017) 25(2) Feminist Legal Studies 185-201.
This study adds to the literature in relation to post-separation violence by introducing the new concept of ‘custody stalking’. Custody stalking is a parents’s use of custody and/or child protection proceedings to obtain care time with children far in excess of their involvement prior to separation (p 187). Elizabeth views custody stalking as a specific pattern of coercive control, derived from the unique insights former partners have about how to torment women (p 187). The study was conducted through interviews with 12 mothers who had experienced domestic violence (p 190). The study found that custody stalking causes grief, damages psychological wellbeing and has a detrimental effect on their mothering relationships. However, the losses experienced by mothers in this study are described as ‘culturally invisible’ (p 187-8)
Wallace, M. et al., (2021) ‘Homicide during pregnancy and the post-partum period in the United States, 218-2019’. Obstetrics & Gynecology, 138(5): 762- 769, doi: 10.1097/AOG.0000000000004567
Objective: To estimate the national pregnancy associated homicide mortality ratio, characterize pregnancy-associated homicide victims, and compare the risk of homicide in the perinatal period (pregnancy and up to 1 year postpartum) with risk among nonpregnant, nonpostpartum females aged 10–44 years.
Methods: Data from the National Center for Health Statistics 2018 and 2019 mortality files were used to identify all female decedents aged 10–44 in the United States. These data were used to estimate 2-year pregnancy-associated homicide mortality ratios (deaths/100,000 live births) for comparison with homicide mortality among nonpregnant, nonpostpartum females (deaths/100,000 population) and to mortality ratios for direct maternal causes of death. We compared characteristics and estimated homicide mortality rate ratios and 95% CIs between pregnant or postpartum and nonpregnant, nonpostpartum victims for the total population and with stratification by race and ethnicity and age.
Results: There were 3.62 homicides per 100,000 live births among females who were pregnant or within 1 year postpartum, 16% higher than homicide prevalence among nonpregnant and nonpostpartum females of reproductive age (3.12 deaths/100,000 population, P,.05). Homicide during pregnancy or within 42 days of the end of pregnancy exceeded all the leading causes of maternal mortality by more than twofold. Pregnancy was associated with a significantly elevated homicide risk in the Black population and among girls and younger women (age 10–24 years) across racial and ethnic subgroups.
Conclusion: Homicide is a leading cause of death during pregnancy and the postpartum period in the United States. Pregnancy and the postpartum period are times of elevated risk for homicide among all females of reproductive age.
World Health Organisation (WHO), Fact sheet: Violence against women, 9 March 2021.
This fact sheet, based on data collected by the WHO, states that intimate partner violence and sexual violence can lead to unintended pregnancies, induced abortions, gynaecological problems, and sexually transmitted infections. WHO studies confirm that women who have experienced partner violence are twice as likely to have an abortion as compared to women who have not experienced partner violence. This fact sheet notes that intimate partner violence in pregnancy also increases the likelihood of miscarriage, stillbirth, pre-term delivery and low birth weight babies.
Pregnancy has been shown to increase and escalate a person’s risk and experience of domestic and family violence by their intimate partner. In Australia, approximately one in seven women who experienced violence from a current partner, and who were pregnant at some point in the relationship, experienced violence during their pregnancy.
Escalation of physical violence or other forms of controlling behaviours during pregnancy may arise from the perpetrator’s jealousy of the pregnancy or child, or the extra attention their partner may experience from family, friends and health care and support service providers. The perpetrator may also perceive the pregnancy as symbolic of their partner’s independence and may use violence to reassert their control.
There can be a range of negative health impacts associated with this violence, including lack of autonomy in reproductive choice, unintended pregnancies, abortions, higher rates of miscarriage, delayed prenatal care, pre-term birth (before 37 completed weeks of gestation) and low birth weight (less than 2,500 grams).
Research shows that unplanned or unwanted pregnancy is more common among women experiencing domestic and family violence. Women who reported recent intimate partner violence were twice as likely to terminate a pregnancy than women who did not experience intimate partner violence.
The perpetrator may have forced or coerced the woman into pregnancy through, for example, emotional manipulation, contraception sabotage or forced unprotected sex. The perpetrator may have intended the pregnancy to prevent the woman from working or studying, or to otherwise exercise control over her. Alternatively the perpetrator may refuse to accept the pregnancy, and accuse his partner of infidelity. Women who are concerned that the violence may continue during and after pregnancy and believe that having a child may make leaving the relationship more difficult, may seek to terminate their pregnancy.
Pregnancy and infancy also create greater dependence for women on their partners physically, emotionally and financially, increasing their vulnerability to domestic and family violence. Some women in abusive relationships may also believe that the pregnancy will make their partner more sympathetic and less likely to abuse, even though research does not support this.
People who are at particular risk of domestic and family violence during pregnancy are those who are: young (aged 18-24); Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander; have a severe mental illness; or who have visa restrictions.
Experiences of domestic and family violence during pregnancy may seriously and adversely affect the health of the pregnant person and foetus. Intimate partner violence in pregnancy also increases the likelihood of miscarriage, stillbirth, pre-term delivery and low birth weight babies.
Pregnancy has been shown to increase and escalate a person’s risk and experience of domestic and family violence by their intimate partner. In Australia, approximately one in seven women who experienced violence from a current partner, and who were pregnant at some point in the relationship, experienced violence during their pregnancy.
Escalation of physical violence or other forms of controlling behaviours during pregnancy may arise from the perpetrator’s jealousy of the pregnancy or child, or the extra attention their partner may experience from family, friends and health care and support service providers. The perpetrator may also perceive the pregnancy as symbolic of their partner’s independence and may use violence to reassert their control.
There can be a range of negative health impacts associated with this violence, including lack of autonomy in reproductive choice, unintended pregnancies, abortions, higher rates of miscarriage, delayed prenatal care, pre-term birth (before 37 completed weeks of gestation) and low birth weight (less than 2,500 grams).
Research shows that unplanned or unwanted pregnancy is more common among women experiencing domestic and family violence. Women who reported recent intimate partner violence were twice as likely to terminate a pregnancy than women who did not experience intimate partner violence.
The perpetrator may have forced or coerced the woman into pregnancy through, for example, emotional manipulation, contraception sabotage or forced unprotected sex. The perpetrator may have intended the pregnancy to prevent the woman from working or studying, or to otherwise exercise control over her. Alternatively the perpetrator may refuse to accept the pregnancy, and accuse his partner of infidelity. Women who are concerned that the violence may continue during and after pregnancy and believe that having a child may make leaving the relationship more difficult, may seek to terminate their pregnancy.
Pregnancy and infancy also create greater dependence for women on their partners physically, emotionally and financially, increasing their vulnerability to domestic and family violence. Some women in abusive relationships may also believe that the pregnancy will make their partner more sympathetic and less likely to abuse, even though research does not support this.
People who are at particular risk of domestic and family violence during pregnancy are those who are: young (aged 18-24); Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander; have a severe mental illness; or who have visa restrictions.
Experiences of domestic and family violence during pregnancy may seriously and adversely affect the health of the pregnant person and foetus. Intimate partner violence in pregnancy also increases the likelihood of miscarriage, stillbirth, pre-term delivery and low birth weight babies.