Australia
Ansara, Y. Gavriel, ‘A Multidimensional and Inclusive Understanding of Gender-Based Family and Interpersonal Violence: Findings from the National LGBTI Health Alliance 2014 Investigation’ (2015) 2 Australia’s National Research Organisation for Women’s Safety Footprints 14.
In July and August 2014, the National LGBTI Health Alliance undertook a national consultation on the direct needs and concerns of LGBTI populations who had experienced violence in their family and interpersonal relationships. Consultees reported (among other things):
•
Concerns about violent/homophobic family members were identified (p 15).
•
Intersex people may be afraid to seek medical treatment due to their physical distinctions (p 15).
•
Difficulty accessing ‘women-only’ and ‘men-only’ shelters (p 16).
•
People with non-binary genders reported being threatened with loss of custody due to their genders (p 16).
•
Women and men of trans experience reported being ridiculed and misgendered by police when reporting experiences of family and interpersonal violence (p 16).
•
Lesbian women and gay men described how stereotypes about butch and femme gender presentation were used to deny appropriate help in response to intimate partner violence (p 16).
•
Bisexual people of all genders described the invisibility and stigma they experienced when trying to report violence against them (p 16).
•
People with intersex variations described having been coerced by medical professionals and biological relatives into unwanted ‘normalising’ medical interventions that caused irreversible damage. (p 16);
•
Gay men, lesbian women, and bisexual people in mixed orientation marriages (i.e. marriages between a gay, lesbian, and bisexual person and a heterosexual person) reported being threatened by their spouses with ‘outing’ and loss of child custody (p 16).
Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, Family, domestic and sexual violence in Australia: Continuing the National Story (Report, 2019).
This report usefully compiles and summarises current statistics on family violence, domestic violence and sexual violence from multiple sources.
Specific at-risk population groups identified, include lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and intersex (LGBTI) people, including those in same-sex relationships.
See pages 99-100 which summarises some of the key issues faced.
Callan A, Corbally M, McElvaney R. A Scoping Review of Intimate Partner Violence as It Relates to the Experiences of Gay and Bisexual Men. Trauma Violence Abuse. 2021 Apr;22(2):233-248. PMID: 33205700
“Across studies, gay and bisexual men were observed to experience IPV similarly to heterosexual couples involving psychological, physical, and sexual violence. However…distinctive features of violence included sexual orientation outing, unprotected sexual intercourse, homophobia, internalized homophobia, and difficulties accessing minority men-focused services.”
Campo, Monica and Sarah Tayton, ‘Intimate Partner Violence in Lesbain, Gay, Bisexual, Trans, Intersex and Queer Communities’ (Child Family Community Australia Practitioner Resource, December 2015).
This article discusses intimate partner violence in LGBTIQ relationships, and the ways in which the predominant focus on heteronormative understandings of abuse have resulted in under acknowledgement and misunderstandings of violence in LGBTIQ communities. Considerations relevant to perpetrators are discussed on p4, including the ways in which stereotypes about both men and women inhibit recognition of intimate partner violence in LGBTIQ relationships – i.e. ‘In lesbian relationships involving physical violence, for instance, there may be the assumption that women are incapable of exerting physical power over other women. Similarly, stereotypes about gay men not being “masculine” might result in views that they are not capable of violence’. It emphasizes, as a result, the importance of identifying the perpetrator, particularly in the context of specific behaviours perpetrators in LGBTIQ relationships may engage in, such as presenting at victims as shelters (p5).
Cochrane, Brandy, ‘Family Violence and the LGBTIQ Community’ (Research Paper, Monash University, 2017).
This paper examines the LGBTIQ community’s experiences of domestic and family violence (DFV). Generally, the LGBTIQ community experiences DFV at a similar, or slightly higher, rate compared to heterosexual people. However, lesbian women were more likely than gay men to report having been in an abusive relationship, and young LGBTIQ people are more likely to experience violence in their relationships than their heterosexual peers. There are also unique pressures that may affect LGBTIQ people in a DFV context:
•
threats to ‘out’ a person;
•
the use of gender to belittle the victim;
•
homophobia experienced when accessing support services;
•
fear that acknowledgement of DFV will contribute to homophobia;
•
A lack of support from family;
•
homelessness;
•
an increased risk of HIV;
•
loss of custody of children;
•
viewing same-sex relationships through heterosexual stereotypes, which may prevent effective service provision; and
•
mistrust of the police by LGBTIQ people.
Stereotypes and misconceptions about the LGBTIQ community and DFV can lead to issues and poor outcomes within the legal system, which highlights the need for greater awareness and understanding of these circumstances among legal professionals.
Constable, Annaliese, et al, One Size Does Not Fit All: Gap Analysis of NSW Domestic Violence Support Services in Relation to Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, Transgender and Intersex Communities’ Needs (AIDS Council of New South Wales (ACON), 2011).
This research paper reports on the results of a study drawing on 65 service providers’ responses to a survey and interviews with 9 community members who were interviewed about their experiences of service provision resulting from domestic violence in a same sex relationship. It reports that negative experiences included being referred for sexual reorientation instead of domestic violence support, the lack of appropriate accommodation and other support services for men, and having to deal with the prejudices of mainstream service providers regarding men seeking support in relation to same sex domestic violence.
Fileborn, Bianca, ‘Sexual Violence and Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, Trans, Intersex, and Queer Communities’ (Australian Centre for the Study of Sexual Assault Resource Sheet, Australian Institute of Family Studies, March 2012).
This paper provides a review of current research into sexual violence in LGBTIQ communities. It provides definitions of ‘biological sex’ and ‘gender identity’. There is a section on intimate partner violence (pp5-6). Research suggests that rates of intimate partner violence in LGBTIQ are similar to those in heterosexual communities. Notably, research suggests that in cases of intimate partner sexual abuse, the abusive partner may exploit broader issues around homophobia and heterosexism as a mechanism to prevent the victim/survivor from disclosing the abuse.
Henry, Nicola, Asher Flynn and Anastasia Powell, Image-based sexual abuse: Victims and perpetrators (Australian Institute of Criminology Report No. 572 March 2019).
Report abstract:
Image-based sexual abuse (IBSA) refers to the non-consensual creation, distribution or threatened distribution of nude or sexual images. This research examines the prevalence, nature and impacts of IBSA victimisation and perpetration in Australia. This form of abuse was found to be relatively common among respondents surveyed and to disproportionately affect Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people, people with a disability, homosexual and bisexual people and young people. The nature of victimisation and perpetration was found to differ by gender, with males more likely to perpetrate IBSA, and females more likely to be victimised by a partner or ex-partner.
Mitra-Kahn, Trishima, Carolyn Newbigin and Sophie Hardefeldt, Invisible women, invisible violence: Understanding and improving data on the experiences of domestic and family violence and sexual assault for diverse groups of women: State of knowledge paper (ANROWS, 2016).
In relation to lesbian, gay, bi-sexual, transgender, intersex and queer women, the paper provides an overview of the existing research at pp.27-30. Key findings include that, ‘[t]here is limited data on the prevalence of domestic and family violence and sexual assault for lesbian, gay, bi-sexual, transgender/trans*, intersex and queer (LGBTIQ) women in Australia. Similarly, there is very little quantitative or qualitative research on domestic and family violence and sexual assault for LGBTIQ women in Australia or internationally. Of the studies analysed, a consistent finding is that LGBTIQ victims-survivors of domestic violence rarely seek support, information or advice on the abuse and violence they experienced and report struggling with identifying that what they were experiencing was domestic violence’ (p.30).
Reeves E., McGowan J. and Scott B. (2023) ‘‘It was dangerous, corrosive and cruel but not illegal’: Legal help-seeking behaviours among LGBTQA+ domestic and family violence victim-survivors experiencing coercive control in Australia Journal of Family Violence doi: 10.1007/s10896-023-00569-9
From abstract: The article draws on the qualitative responses of a sample of 137 LGBTQA+ victim-survivors who participated in a survey on Australians’ experiences of coercive control. The analysis considers the reasons why some participants did not report abuse to the police, and the impact of police reporting for those who did. The study found that many of the concerns about the impact of reporting held by those who did not report to the police were actualised in the experiences of those who did report. Further, the study found that LGBTQA+ persons experience similar barriers to help-seeking compared to heterosexual and cisgender women, in addition to barriers that speak specifically to LGBTQA+ communities.
Rosenstriech, Gabi, LGBTI People Mental Health and Suicide (National LGBTI Health Alliance, 2nd revised ed, 2013).
This report is focused on mental ill-health and suicidality in LGBTI communities. It is noted that there is an elevated risk of mental ill-health and suicidality in these communities due to discrimination and exclusion (p4).
Soldatic, K. et al., (2023). Indigenous LGBTIQSB+ People’s Experience of Family violence in Australia. Journal of Family Violence, online first, doi: 10.1007/s10896-023-00539-1
Based on 16 interviews with Indigenous LGBTIQSB+ people in the state of New South Wales, Australia. This article explores the social and emotional wellbeing of Indigenous LGBTIQSB+ young people living in New South Wales. The findings ‘demonstrate the intersectional nature of family violence highlighting the fact that Indigenous LGBTIQSB+ young people are integral parts of extended kinship networks, families and communities and are deeply impacted by any acts of family violence.’
Note LGBTIQSB+: Lesbian, gay, Bisexual, trans, Intersex, Queer, Sistergirl, Brotherboy, Plus.
The article concludes:
Participants’ stories spoke of family and community violence that focused on intimidation, bullying and threats of violence. These kinds of behaviours were at times aimed at making the young person feel uncomfortable, to feel unwanted, invisible, excluded and even to force them to change their ‘lifestyles’ or at least shape their behaviours so that their gender and sexuality diversity were kept hidden. Even though participants spoke about how they successfully negotiated these events, LGBTIQ + phobic and racist behaviours also caused feelings of isolation, distress, a feeling of invisibility, lack of worth and exclusion.
LGBTIQSB + young people reported significant amounts of violence from communities, some related to their gen- der and sexuality diversity and other behaviours related to perceptions about their Indigeneity. LGBTIQSB+-phobia in Indigenous families and communities was reported more within extended families, older generations and rural or remote communities. Negative interactions and attitudes from Indigenous families and communities are significant given the importance of culture, family, and community for Indigenous people. These are still central to young Indigenous LGBTIQSB + lives with participants speaking about the heart break of not being able to go home to Country to visit grandparents and Elders in rural and remote communities. (p11).
Szalacha, Laura A et al, ‘Mental Health, Sexual Identity, and Interpersonal Violence: Findings from the Australian Longitudinal Women’s Health Study’ (2017) 17(94) BMC Women’s Health (online).
This study investigates the linkages between interpersonal violence, mental health, and sexual identity (pp 2-3). The results indicate that:
•
Compared to exclusively heterosexual women, mainly heterosexual and bisexual women were significantly more likely to report physical, sexual, and emotional abuse (p 4);
•
Mainly heterosexual and lesbian women were more likely to report severe physical abuse (p 4);
•
Mainly heterosexual women were more than three times as likely to have been in a violent relationship in the past three years (p 4);
•
All sexual minorities were two to three times as likely to have experienced harassment (p 4);
•
Bisexual women reported significantly higher levels of depression and scored lower on mental health than did exclusively heterosexual women (pp 6, 7);
•
Interpersonal violence strongly predicted poorer mental health for lesbian and bisexual women (p 6);
•
Mental health indicators were similar for exclusively heterosexual and sexual minority women who did not report interpersonal violence (pp 6, 7);
•
Experiencing multiple types of interpersonal violence was the strongest predictor of stress, anxiety and depression (p 6).
Interpersonal violence is a significant contributor to mental health disparities for women, particularly for those belonging to sexual minorities (pp 7-8).
Ussher, J. et al. Crossing the line: Lived experience of sexual violence among trans women from Culturally and Linguistically Diverse backgrounds in Australia (2020) Sydney: ANROWS
The key findings of this study are that:
•
There are positive implications for trans women’s overall health and wellbeing when trans women feel included and accepted;
•
Trans women of colour from CALD backgrounds, as well as women who identify as lesbian, bisexual or queer, may experience additional prejudice and discrimination due to the intersection of gender, sexuality, social class, race and religion;
•
Support in gender transitioning, through facilitation of access to hormone therapy, reduces the risk of transphobic violence; and
•
CALD trans women’s experiences of gender-based sexual violence are comparable with those of non-CALD trans women and cisgender women, however trans women also experience transphobic violence.
The study’s recommendations are to:
•
Conduct further awareness-raising and education for healthcare providers, legislators, police and policymakers, as well as the general public, in relation to transgender experience and gender transitioning;
•
Challenge societal attitudes which support, condone or trivialise sexual violence against women, including violence against trans women; and
•
Ensure policy and practice documents and clinical guidelines use language that is inclusive of gender and sexuality diversity when discussing sexual violence against women.
International
Donovan, Catherine and Rebecca Barnes, ‘Help-Seeking among Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and/or Transgender Victims/Survivors of Domestic Violence and Abuse: The Impacts of Cisgendered Heteronormativity and Invisibility’ (2019) 56(4) Journal of Sociology 554-570 doi: 10.1177/1440783319882088
Despite growing research into domestic violence and abuse in lesbian, gay, bisexual and/or trans (‘LGBT’) people’s relationships, LGBT people remain largely invisible in domestic violence and abuse policy and practice. Research evidence indicates that they primarily seek help from privatised sources such as counsellors/therapists and friends. The gap in knowledge about LGBT victims/survivors’ help-seeking reflects and reinforces the success of neoliberal trends in privatising social problems by promoting self-care and individual responsibility. Using qualitative data from a mixed-methods UK study, this article offers an ecological analysis of LGBT victims/survivors’ help-seeking decisions and barriers, demonstrating how cisgendered heteronormativity and LGBT invisibility permeate help-seeking at individual, interpersonal and socio-cultural levels. The conclusion argues for LGBT domestic violence and abuse to be recognised as a social problem rather than a private trouble. Recommendations are offered for necessary steps towards better recognising and supporting LGBT victims/survivors.
Henry RS, Perrin PB, Coston BM, Calton JM. Intimate Partner Violence and Mental Health Among Transgender/Gender Nonconforming Adults. J Interpers Violence. 2021 Apr; 36(7-8):3374-3399.
Abstract: There is significant evidence to suggest that intimate partner violence (IPV) is associated with mental health problems including anxiety and depression. However, this research has almost exclusively been conducted through heteronormative and cisgender lenses. The current study is an exploratory, quantitative analysis of the relationship between experiences of IPV and mental health among transgender/gender nonconforming (TGNC) adults. A national sample of 78 TGNC individuals completed a survey online measuring participants' experiences with IPV and depression, anxiety, and satisfaction with life. Of the sample, 72% reported at least one form of IPV victimization in their lifetime: 32% reported experiencing sexual IPV, 71% psychological IPV, 42% physical IPV, and 29% IPV assault with injury. All four types of IPV were positively associated with anxiety, and all but physical abuse was significantly associated with depression. None of the four types of IPV was associated with satisfaction with life. In a canonical correlation, IPV victimization and mental health had 31% overlapping variance, a large-sized effect. Sexual IPV and anxiety were the highest loading variables, suggesting that TGNC individuals who have experienced sexual IPV specifically tended to have higher levels of anxiety. These findings support previous qualitative, small-sample studies suggesting that IPV is a pervasive problem in the TGNC community. TGNC individuals who have experienced IPV may be at increased risk for mental health problems, and therefore, IPV history may trigger appropriate mental health screenings and referrals for this population in health care settings.
Jackson, A. et al., (2022) Prevalence and correlates of Violence experienced by Trans women. Journal of Women’s Health, 31 (5), 648-655, doi: 10.1089/jwh.2021.0559
This research measured the prevalence and correlates of intimate partner, physical, and sexual violence experienced by trans women. A National HIV Behavioral Surveillance (NHBS) Study of 201 trans women was conducted in San Francisco from July 2019 to February 2020. Among 201 trans women interviewed, 26.9% were currently homeless. In the past year, 59.7% had been homeless, 34.3% changed housing, 60.7% had a housing situation other than renting or owning. Experiences of violence were common: 36.8% experienced any form of violence, including sexual (16.9%), intimate partner (14.9%), and other physical (25.4%) in the past year. Experiences of violence were significantly associated with multiple measures of housing insecurity. Younger age, being misgendered, and substance use were also associated with experiences of violence.
King, K. et al., Transgender Individuals and Psychological Intimate Partner Violence: a National Study (2022) 37 Journal of Family Violence 289-300 doi: 10.1007/s10896-020-00219-4
This American study examined associations among Intimate Partner Violence (IPV), demographics, sex work, and substance use in a national sample of transgender individuals. National data from the 2015 Transgender Survey (n = 27,715) was analyzed. Results indicated that nearly half (48.3%) of transgender individuals had experienced IPV in their lifetime. Lifetime IPV differed significantly based on demographics, sex work and substance use. Individuals at highest risk for lifetime IPV were those who self-identified as a trans man, were 25–64 years old, were Native American/Alaskan Native or Middle-Eastern/North African, had some college or less, had an annual income of $1–$24,999, had been part of a religious/spiritual community, had engaged in sex work and had used substances.
Messing, JT, Thomas, KA, Ward-Lasher, AL & Brewer, NQ 2021, ‘A Comparison of Intimate Partner Violence Strangulation Between Same-Sex and Different-Sex Couples’, Journal of Interpersonal Violence, vol. 36, no. 5/6, pp. 2887–2905.
US based study. Abstract: Strangulation is a common and dangerous form of intimate partner violence (IPV). Nonfatal strangulation is a risk factor for homicide; can lead to severe, long-term physical and mental health sequelae; and can be an effective strategy of coercion and control. To date, research has not examined strangulation within same-sex couples. The objective of this cross-sectional, observational research is to identify whether and to what extent the detection of strangulation and coercive control differs between same-sex and different-sex couples in police reports of IPV. Data (n = 2,207) were obtained from a single police department in the southwest United States (2011-2013). Bivariate analyses examined differences in victim and offender demographics, victim injury, violence, and coercive controlling behaviours between same-sex (male-male and female-female) and different-sex couples (female victim-male offender). Logistic regression was used to examine associations between strangulation, victim and offender demographics, coercive controlling behaviours, and couple configuration. Strangulation was reported significantly more often in different-sex (9.8%) than in female and male same-sex couple cases (5.2% and 5.3%, respectively; p <.05). Injury, however, was reported more frequently in same-sex than in different-sex couples (p <.05). Couple configuration (p <.05), coercive control (p <.05), and injury (p <.05) significantly predict strangulation. Findings suggest that nonfatal strangulation occurs within at least a minority of same-sex couples; it is possible that underdetection by law enforcement makes it appear less common than it actually is. Regardless of couple configuration, timely identification of strangulation and subsequent referral to medical and social service providers is essential for preventing repeated strangulation, life-threatening injury, and the long-term health effects of strangulation.
Sarah M. Peitzmeier et al. “Intimate Partner Violence in Transgender Populations: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Prevalence and Correlates”, American Journal of Public Health 110, no. 9 (September 1, 2020): pp. e1-e14.
Abstract:
Authors’ Conclusions: Transgender individuals experience a dramatically higher prevalence of IPV victimization compared with cisgender individuals, regardless of sex assigned at birth. IPV prevalence estimates are comparably high for assigned-male-sex-at-birth and assigned-female-sex-at-birth transgender individuals, and for binary and nonbinary transgender individuals, though more research is needed.
Public Health Implications: Evidence-based interventions are urgently needed to prevent and address IPV in this high-risk population with unique needs. Lack of legal protections against discrimination in employment, housing, and social services likely foster vulnerability to IPV. Transgender individuals should be explicitly included in US Preventive Services Task Force recommendations promoting IPV screening in primary care settings. Interventions at the policy level as well as the interpersonal and individual level are urgently needed to address epidemic levels of IPV in this marginalized, high-risk population.
Rollè, Luca, Giardina, Giulia, Caldarera, Angela, Gerino, Eva, and Piera Brustia, ‘When Intimate Partner Violence Meets Same Sex Couples: A Review of Same Sex Intimate Partner Violence’ (2018) 9 Frontiers in Psychology 1-13.
The paper conducts a literature review on intimate partner violence (IPV) occurring in same sex couples. The authors aimed to provide an overview of the psychological literature on lesbian, gay and bisexual (LGB) IPV (specifically focusing on interventions for both victims and perpetrators), and to propose recommendations for future directions in research for LGB-oriented psychological and community services in relation to IPV. Despite the long-standing perception that IPV is an issue exclusive to heterosexual relationships, many studies have found the existence of IPV among lesbian and gay couples. Whilst there are similarities between heterosexual and LGB IPV, there are unique features specific to LGB IPV. Such features mainly relate to identification and treatment of LGB IPV in the community and to the importance of considering the role of sexual minority stressors. The authors found that there were minimal studies that address LGB individuals involved in IPV due to the silence that has existed around violence in the LGB community. The authors identify and review the principal themes discussed in the published studies, and conclude that it is important to create a free and open forum to discuss this issue, both by LGB and heterosexual people. Interventions for LGB IPV victims and perpetrators should be included in an integrate and complete treatment plan that should be adapted to the specific situation.
Woodyatt, Cory and Rob Stephenson, ‘Emotional intimate partner violence experienced by men in same-sex relationships’ (2016) 18(10) Culture, Health and Sexuality 1137-1149.
This US study is the first to examine the types, antecedents and experiences of emotional intimate partner violence (‘IPV’) that occur between male partners (p 1145). The study conducted 10 focus group discussions with gay and bisexual men (n = 64 participants) (p 1140). The study found that gay and bisexual men perceive emotional IPV to be commonplace and the ‘most threatening form of intimate partner violence’ (p 1144-6). The participants identified the most common antecedents to be jealousy, power differentials, and internalised homophobia (p 1143). The descriptions of emotional IPV in male-male relationships is similar to male-female relationships, but some coercive behaviours manifest differently (p 1145). For example, threatening to disclose a partner’s sexual identity was identified as an example of emotional violence and coercive control (p 1145).
LGBTIQ+ (or lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, intersex and queer +) encompasses people whose sexual orientation, gender identity or sex differ from heterosexual or male-female sex and gender norms. As in the broader community, the identities and experiences of people in these communities are enormously diverse and influenced by factors such as age, ethnicity, migration experience, geographical location, disability, and socio-economic status. There is however a disproportionate number of LGBTIQ+ people who experience poorer health than other groups in the Australian community, in particular mental ill health and suicide, which may be due to their fear of or actual discrimination, ‘outing’, violence, abuse, or exclusion. Research also identifies a greater prevalence of other risk factors for LGBTIQ+ people including more harmful and frequent use of alcohol and other drugs, homelessness and poverty, disengagement from schooling, and chronic health disorders.
Of the research that has been conducted over recent years findings suggest that the incidence of this form of violence in LGBTIQ+ communities is similar to that experienced in the broader community, though specific data for transgender and intersex people is lacking. Other findings suggest possible differences and vulnerabilities particular to LGBTIQ+ people in their experience of domestic and family violence, including:
•
There is likely to be a higher proportion of men as victims and women as perpetrators than in the general population
•
Heterosexual stereotypes about men and women may result in false assumptions that, for example, lesbian women are not capable of physical violence, or gay men are not masculine
•
While all forms of violence may be experienced, there may be some differences in the perpetrator’s behaviours, for example, threatening to out or actually outing the victim in terms of their sexuality or HIV status, withholding hormone treatments, preventing participation in LGBTIQ+ events, name calling, ridicule and public humiliation
•
Parents, siblings and other family members may also be perpetrators of violence, especially towards young LGBTIQ+ people
•
LGBTIQ+ people may be less likely to identify the behaviour they experience as violence, and they may be less likely to report the behaviour or seek the help they need for fear of ostracism and discrimination; a negative response from the police and courts; escalating the violence; being ‘outed’; being disbelieved or blamed; or due to personal feelings of shame or embarrassment or a need to protect the perpetrator or the relationship
•
Lesbian abusers may seek to access women’s shelters or support groups already accessed by their partner in order to continue perpetrating violence against their partner
•
Mainstream services, including refuges and court assistance and counselling, may not be well developed to understand and meet the complex and diverse needs of LGBTIQ+ victims and perpetrators and appropriate services may be unavailable.
LGBTIQ+ (or lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, intersex and queer +) encompasses people whose sexual orientation, gender identity or sex differ from heterosexual or male-female sex and gender norms. As in the broader community, the identities and experiences of people in these communities are enormously diverse and influenced by factors such as age, ethnicity, migration experience, geographical location, disability, and socio-economic status. There is however a disproportionate number of LGBTIQ+ people who experience poorer health than other groups in the Australian community, in particular mental ill health and suicide, which may be due to their fear of or actual discrimination, ‘outing’, violence, abuse, or exclusion. Research also identifies a greater prevalence of other risk factors for LGBTIQ+ people including more harmful and frequent use of alcohol and other drugs, homelessness and poverty, disengagement from schooling, and chronic health disorders.
Of the research that has been conducted over recent years findings suggest that the incidence of this form of violence in LGBTIQ+ communities is similar to that experienced in the broader community, though specific data for transgender and intersex people is lacking. Other findings suggest possible differences and vulnerabilities particular to LGBTIQ+ people in their experience of domestic and family violence, including:
•
There is likely to be a higher proportion of men as victims and women as perpetrators than in the general population
•
Heterosexual stereotypes about men and women may result in false assumptions that, for example, lesbian women are not capable of physical violence, or gay men are not masculine
•
While all forms of violence may be experienced, there may be some differences in the perpetrator’s behaviours, for example, threatening to out or actually outing the victim in terms of their sexuality or HIV status, withholding hormone treatments, preventing participation in LGBTIQ+ events, name calling, ridicule and public humiliation
•
Parents, siblings and other family members may also be perpetrators of violence, especially towards young LGBTIQ+ people
•
LGBTIQ+ people may be less likely to identify the behaviour they experience as violence, and they may be less likely to report the behaviour or seek the help they need for fear of ostracism and discrimination; a negative response from the police and courts; escalating the violence; being ‘outed’; being disbelieved or blamed; or due to personal feelings of shame or embarrassment or a need to protect the perpetrator or the relationship
•
Lesbian abusers may seek to access women’s shelters or support groups already accessed by their partner in order to continue perpetrating violence against their partner
•
Mainstream services, including refuges and court assistance and counselling, may not be well developed to understand and meet the complex and diverse needs of LGBTIQ+ victims and perpetrators and appropriate services may be unavailable.