Note that reports of the Australian Domestic and Family Violence Death Review Network (the Network) which utilise the National Minimum Dataset (NMDS) to identify key trends and patterns in intimate partner homicide with an identified history of domestic and family violence are now found in Death review.
Australia
Australian Bureau of Statistics, 4510.0 - Recorded Crime - Victims, Australia, 2024.
Victims of Domestic and Family Violence-Related Offences
This chapter presents experimental data about victims of selected Family and Domestic Violence (FDV) –related offences. Victims of selected offences have been determined to be FDV–related where the relationship of offender to victim, as stored on police recording systems, falls within a specified family or domestic relationship or where an FDV flag has been recorded, following a police investigation.
Key findings include:
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FDV-related homicide victims accounted for nearly two fifths of total homicide victims in 2023, and females accounted for over half of all FDV-related homicide victims.
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Regarding FDV-related assault, across selected states and territories 65-79 per cent of victims were female.
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Regarding FDV-related sexual assault 88 per cent of victims were female.
Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS), Personal Safety, Australia, 2023, ABS cat no. 4906.0 (2016).
This release presents information from the Australian Bureau of Statistics’ (ABS) 2021-22 Personal Safety Survey (PSS).
The PSS collected information from persons aged 18 years and over about the nature and extent of their experiences of violence, including detailed information about experiences of:
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physical and sexual violence
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violence, emotional abuse, and economic abuse by a cohabiting partner
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stalking
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sexual harassment
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childhood abuse and witnessing parenting violence before the age of 15
This publication presents high level prevalence statistics and changes over time for key violence types collected in the survey.
Women | Men |
|---|---|
Prevalence since the age of 15 | |
2 in 5 women experienced violence (39%) | 2 in 5 men experienced violence (43%) |
1 in 5 women experienced sexual violence (22%) | 1 in 16 men experienced sexual violence (6.1%) |
1 in 3 women experienced physical violence (31%) | 2 in 5 men experienced physical violence (42%) |
1 in 5 women experienced stalking (20%) | 1 in 15 men experienced stalking (6.8%) |
Prevalence of intimate partner and family member violence since the age of 15 | |
1 in 4 women experienced violence by an intimate partner or family member (27%) | 1 in 8 men experienced violence by an intimate partner or family member (12%) |
1 in 12 women experienced violence by a family member (8.1%) | 1 in 17 men experienced violence by a family member (5.9%) |
1 in 4 women experienced violence by an intimate partner (23%) | 1 in 14 men experienced violence by an intimate partner (7.3%) |
1 in 11 women experienced violence by a boyfriend, girlfriend, or date (9.3%) | 1 in 44 men experienced violence by a boyfriend, girlfriend, or date (2.3%*) |
1 in 6 women experienced cohabitating partner violence (17%) | 1 in 18 men experienced cohabiting partner violence (5.5%) |
1 in 4 women experienced cohabiting partner emotional abuse (23%) | 1 in 7 men experienced cohabiting partner emotional abuse (14%) |
1 in 6 women experienced cohabiting partner economic abuse (16%) | 1 in 13 men experienced cohabiting economic abuse (7.8%) |
Australian Domestic and Family Violence Death Review Network and Australia’s National Research Organisation for Women’s Safety (2023), Australian Domestic and Family Violence Death Review Network Data Report: Filicides in a domestic and family violence context 2010-2018 (1st ed. Research report 06/2024) ANROWS
This report presents the first national figures for filicides that have occured in Australia in the context of domestic and family violence (DFV). 76 per cent of filicides in Australia occur within the context of DFV, involving a history of child abuse, intimate partner violence (IPV) or both. These cases are referred to as ‘DFV-context filicides’.
Key findings:
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In 9 in 10 (88%) of cases a history of IPV was found
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In 8 in 10 (78%) of cases child abuse was found. This included physical, sexual or emotional violence perpetrated by a parent towards children, which includes the filicide victims and their siblings
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When fathers killed their children, it often followed a history of perpetrating intimate partner violence
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When mothers killed their children, it often followed a history of experiencing intimate partner violence.
Brain Injury Australia, ‘The Prevalence of Acquired Brain Injury among Victims and Perpetrators of Family Violence’ (April 2018).
This resource provides detailed analysis of the prevalence of acquired brain injuries among both victims and perpetrators of family violence. For both victims and perpetrators, brain injury impacts capacity to recover, change and safeguard future wellbeing. This study utilises data obtained from Victorian hospitals between 2006 and 2016 (p 25). Family violence is a significant cause of brain injury, with around 40 percent of victims having sustained a brain injury (pp 29). Moreover, brain injury was associated with 14 of the 17 family violence-related deaths in the study period (p 29). There is also evidence to suggest that rates of brain injury among perpetrators of family violence are disproportionately high, indicating that having suffered a brain injury is a risk factor for future perpetration of family violence (p 19). Finally, the study highlights that the available data is likely to represent the ‘tip of the iceberg’, with many injuries going unreported or undiagnosed, emphasising the need for additional research in this area (pp 34-5).
Brown, Thea, Samantha Bricknell, Willow Bryant, Samantha Lyneham, Danielle Tyson and Paula Fernandez Arias, Filicide offenders (Australian Institute of Criminology Report No. 568 February 2019).
Report abstract:
Filicide is the killing of a child by a parent or parent equivalent. Between 2000–01 and 2011–12, there were 238 incidents of filicide in Australia involving the death of 284 children. This paper examines the characteristics of custodial parents, non-custodial parents and step-parents charged with the murder or manslaughter of their children.
Offender circumstances and characteristics differed according to the offender’s gender and custodial relationship with the victim. As filicide is difficult to predict, intervention strategies should focus on families with multiple risk factors and address the needs of parents as well as those of children at risk.
Darshini Ayton, Elizabeth Pritchard and Tess Tsindos, ‘Acquired Brain Injury in the Context of Family Violence: A Systematic Scoping Review of Incidence, Prevalence, and Contributing Factors’ (2019) Trauma, Violence & Abuse 1-15.
Acquired brain injury (ABI) is regarded as the forerunner to, or result of, family violence. ABI is an umbrella term for conditions such as traumatic brain injury (TBI), stroke, aneurysm, brain tumour or vestibular dysfunction. In particular, TBIs are associated with reduced cognitive and physical functioning, negative psychological responses (such as depression and post-traumatic stress disorder), and even death. Family violence may be perpetrated by someone who has previously suffered a TBI and/or the victim may sustain a TBI from violence. Although studies have considered TBIs and family violence separately, there is limited evidence assessing the nexus between these two phenomena. This article presents a systematic review of current literature regarding incidence, prevalence and contributing factors of brain injury within a family violence context. Results showed that the factors contributing to brain injury within the family violence context had multifactorial causation and varied significantly across the studied populations. A number of biological, behavioural, structural, social and environmental factors were identified as negatively affecting the incidence and prevalence of brain injury and family violence. Biological factors that contributed to being a victim of family violence included age and gender of parent/baby. The social factor of previous child abuse was correlated with ongoing abuse later in life, but is yet to be fully explored. Environmental factors, such as hostile living environments and exposure to natural disasters, also have not been thoroughly investigated in relation to IPV or TBI, but are linked to an increase in parental stress and contributed to greater levels of child maltreatment. One limitation of the review was that the underreporting of family violence may have affected the accuracy and generalisability of incidence and prevalence statistics.
Douglas, H (2022) ‘The use of fire and threats to burn in the context of domestic and family violence and coercive control’ Current Issues in Criminal Justice 35(1):27-47, doi: 10.1080/10345329.2022.2095795
Article analyses 49 reported legal cases where the offender has been found guilty of a criminal offence when they used or threatened to use fire to cause damage or harm in the context of domestic and family violence. It considers how fire is used in abusive relationships to exert control and cause harm.
Miles, H. and Brickness S (2024) Homicide in Australia 2022-2023, Statistical Report no. 46 2024. Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology.
The National Homicide Monitoring Program is Australia’s only national data collection on homicide incidents, victims and offenders. This report describes the 232 homicide incidents recorded by Australian state and territory police between 1 July 2022 and 30 June 2023. During this 12-month period there were 247 victims of homicide and 260 identified offenders. The victim and offender were known to each other in 71% of homicide incidents recorded: 18% of homicide incidents involved intimate partners.
In 2022-23 there were 79 incidents of domestic homicide (34% of all homicide incidents). Between 1989-90 and 2022-23, 39 per cent (n=3658) of homicide incidents were domestic homicides (p. 8).
In 2022-23 there were 38 incidents of intimate partner homicide. Intimate partner homicide comprised almost half (48%) of domestic homicide incidents and 16 per cent of all homicide incidents in 2022-23 (p. 10).
Eight-nine per cent (n=34) of intimate partner homicide incidents in 2022-23 were perpetrated against a female victim.
Of the remaining 41 incidents of domestic homicide, 16 (or 7% of all homicide incidents) were parricides (the killing of a parent) and 11 (5%) were filicides (a parent killing a child). Four incidents (2%) were siblicide (the killing of a sibling) and 10 incidents (4%) were the homicide of another family member (including kin) (p. 11).
Over half of female victims of male offenders were killed by a current or former intimate partner (57%, n=34; see Table 16), while 12 per cent (n=7) were killed by their teenage or adult child (p. 21).
Mooney, Rosemary and Deborah Byrne, Understanding the relationship between family violence and brain injury (The Brain Injury Association of Tasmania, 2016).
This report provides a summary of the key issues surrounding the complex relationship between injury and family violence in Australia. It notes that half of the people who perpetrate family violence have an existing brain injury (but not all people living with a brain injury perpetrate family violence). Research demonstrates that there is an association between brain injury and increased aggressive behaviour. Moreover, the types of abuse victims of family violence often report (being hit in the face, head and neck, being shaken, and being choked) are all risk factors for brain injury. Research has established that at least one third of women who have experienced family violence has sustained a brain injury. However, the needs of women who live with traumatic brain injury are not being met (p.1).
It notes that ‘[v]ictims of family violence are seldom screened for brain injury which means that the phenomenon of brain injury as a consequence of family violence is under reported; the same is true for perpetrators of family violence. Prevalence rates are therefore difficult to estimate due to under reporting, under diagnosis, and under researching of brain injury, making it an ‘invisible’ problem’ (p.1).
Mouzos, Jenny, and Toni Makkai, ‘Women's Experience of Male Violence: Findings from the Australian Component of the International Violence Against Women Survey (IVAWS)’ (Research and Public Policy Series No 56, Australian Institute of Criminology, 2004).
This paper reports on the findings of the International Violence Against Women Survey (IVAWS), which was conducted across Australia between December 2002 and June 2003. A total of 6,677 women aged between 18 and 69 years participated in the survey, and provided information on their experiences of physical and sexual violence including childhood violence. The report describes the type of violence (including threats of violence) by current and former intimate male partners, and other known and unknown males. The IVAWS measures three distinctive types of violence against women: 1) physical (including threats of physical violence); 2) sexual (including unwanted sexual touching); and 3) psychological (controlling behaviours such as put downs, keeping track of whereabouts).
Nemeth, J. et al (2019) ‘Provider perceptions and domestic violence (DV) survivor experiences of traumatic and anoxic-hypoxic brain injury: Implications for DV advocacy service provision’, Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment and Trauma 28(6):744-63.
This study sought to 1) characterise provider knowledge, experience and perception of the impact of brain injury (BI) on the experiences of DV survivors within services, and 2) document DV survivors’ experiences with abuse exposures that can lead to traumatic or anoxic-hypoxic BI along with their perception of how programs address brain injury (p. 747). The authors examined data on BI and strangulation collected from five DV advocacy organisations: 11 focus groups were conducted with service providers and interview administered surveys were completed with survivors. Results show a discrepancy between providers’ perception of the potential impact of BI on survivors’ ability to access services and the pervasive exposure to incidents of head trauma and strangulation that could cause BI among the population. Over 81% of survivors reported having been hit in the head or been made to have their head hit another object at least once, and over 83% of survivors reported being strangled.
Noonan, Patrick, Annabel Taylor and Jackie Burke, Links between alcohol consumption and domestic and sexual violence against women: Key findings and future directions (ANROWS, 2017).
This literature review found that “there is little evidence that alcohol use is a primary cause of violence against women. The paper does, however, identify that there are clear associations, and in some cases, strong correlations between alcohol use and violence against women, including, for instance, in the severity of the violence.” The relationship between alcohol and violence against women manifests in three ways:
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Alcohol use is linked with the perpetration of violence against women.
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Alcohol use is linked with women’s victimisation by violence.
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Alcohol is used as a coping strategy by women who have experienced violence
International
Adam Pritchard, Amy Reckdenwald and Chelsea Nordham, ‘Nonfatal Strangulation as Part of Domestic Violence: A Review of Research’ (2017) 18(4) Trauma, Violence & Abuse 407-424.
Awareness and understanding of non-fatal strangulation in cases of domestic violence has improved significantly in the past 15 years. This article reviews the recent literature on non-fatal strangulation in these circumstances, and highlights the challenges of improving research in this area. The authors 1) analyse the recent history of strangulation as it emerged from criminal justice and medical research within the broader area of domestic violence, and discussed how these changes have led to legal and prosecutorial amendments (page 408); 2) propose a general definition of strangulation and note the inconsistent use of certain terminology in the literature (page 410); 3) consider the research implications within the context of criminology, forensic science, law and medicine (page 412-18); and 4) call for five recommendations to advance practice and research (page 418-20).
Cliffe, Charlotte, Maddalena Miele and Steven Reid, ‘Homicide in pregnant and postpartum women worldwide: a review of the literature’ (2019) 40(2) Journal of Public Health Policy 80-216
This study reviewed the international literature on maternal homicide, and found that pregnancy-associated homicide is an important contributor to maternal mortality, with rates comparable to suicide. Women murdered during the perinatal period constitute a highly vulnerable group as they are younger, unmarried and more likely to be from minority ethnic groups. Reported worldwide rates of maternal homicide range from 0.97 to 10.6 per 100,000 live births. Rates are highest in the US in comparison to other jurisdictions. Evidence suggests that women who are pregnant may have an increased risk of being a victim of homicide, compared to non-pregnant women. Studies reporting homicide in other jurisdictions do not report as consistently high numbers in the perinatal period, which may be because a lack of data and reliance on national reporting systems which differ significantly by country in method and accuracy.
Fyers, A., & Ensor, B., et. al., The Homicide Report (2019).
The Homicide Report is the first publicly searchable database of homicides in New Zealand. It references 1068 cases involving 591 men, 283 women and 194 young people between 2004 and 2019. It aims to determine the reasons behind homicide in New Zealand, and reveals a connection between the homicide rate in a neighbourhood and the level of social and economic deprivation. The Report highlights the extent to which family violence, alcohol and drug abuse contribute to homicidal death. It also identifies all gun-related homicides in the past 15 years. The Report demonstrates the unacceptably high incidence of male aggression, family violence and child abuse. Results show that half of women who die of homicide in New Zealand are killed by a partner or ex-partner. The victims are more likely to be stabbed or asphyxiated than other homicide victims. These homicides are likely to be premeditated rather than unintentional. Further, more than half of child victims are killed by a parent or caregiver.
Messing, JT, Thomas, KA, Ward-Lasher, AL & Brewer, NQ 2021, ‘A Comparison of Intimate Partner Violence Strangulation Between Same-Sex and Different-Sex Couples’, Journal of Interpersonal Violence, vol. 36, no. 5/6, pp. 2887–2905.
US based study. Abstract: Strangulation is a common and dangerous form of intimate partner violence (IPV). Nonfatal strangulation is a risk factor for homicide; can lead to severe, long-term physical and mental health sequelae; and can be an effective strategy of coercion and control. To date, research has not examined strangulation within same-sex couples. The objective of this cross-sectional, observational research is to identify whether and to what extent the detection of strangulation and coercive control differs between same-sex and different-sex couples in police reports of IPV. Data (n = 2,207) were obtained from a single police department in the southwest United States (2011-2013). Bivariate analyses examined differences in victim and offender demographics, victim injury, violence, and coercive controlling behaviours between same-sex (male-male and female-female) and different-sex couples (female victim-male offender). Logistic regression was used to examine associations between strangulation, victim and offender demographics, coercive controlling behaviours, and couple configuration. Strangulation was reported significantly more often in different-sex (9.8%) than in female and male same-sex couple cases (5.2% and 5.3%, respectively; p <.05). Injury, however, was reported more frequently in same-sex than in different-sex couples (p <.05). Couple configuration (p <.05), coercive control (p <.05), and injury (p <.05) significantly predict strangulation. Findings suggest that nonfatal strangulation occurs within at least a minority of same-sex couples; it is possible that underdetection by law enforcement makes it appear less common than it actually is. Regardless of couple configuration, timely identification of strangulation and subsequent referral to medical and social service providers is essential for preventing repeated strangulation, life-threatening injury, and the long-term health effects of strangulation.
Meyer JE, Jammula V, Arnett PA. Head Trauma in a Community-Based Sample of Victims of Intimate Partner Violence: Prevalence, Mechanisms of Injury and Symptom Presentation. (2021) Journal of Interpersonal Violence doi:10.1177/08862605211016362
Of 47 female participants recruited from the general community with a history of at least one relationship that included physical violence, 89.4% reported at least one impact to the head and 48.9% at least one impact to the head that resulted in mild traumatic brain injury. 47.8% experienced at least one incident of having difficulty breathing due to a violent act from their partner, and 29.8% reported symptoms consistent with mild brain injury due to lack of oxygen. The most common mechanisms of injury were being hit with a closed fist and being strangled. These high levels of head and brain injury highlights the need for appropriate screening by clinical and community providers.
Michelle Patch, Jocelyn Anderson and Jacquelyn Campbell, ‘Injuries of Women Surviving Intimate Partner Strangulation and Subsequent Emergency Health Care Seeking: An Integrative Evidence Review’ (2018) 44(4) Journal of Emergency Nursing 384.
This article reviewed the literature on women’s injuries and their subsequent experiences in seeking health care after encountering non-fatal intimate partner strangulation (NF-IPS). Research shows that NF-IPS is higher in women than in men. Although injuries may be subtle or minimised, they may have severe health consequences. In recent years, there have been calls for nursing and other health care providers to improve practices related to strangulation screening, assessment and treatment. Overall, NF-IPS was associated with multiple negative physical (eg injuries to head/neck or neurological, vascular or respiratory systems) and psychological (eg anxiety, depression, suicidal ideation or post-traumatic stress) outcomes for women. Studies suggested that women are reluctant to seek health care after being strangled. Reasons for their reluctance include wanting a safe place first, not wanting to share personal experiences, an abuser being present in the room during the visit, and feelings of hopelessness.
The Disabilities Trust, Making the Link: Female Offending and Brain Injury (2018).
This study focuses on brain injury in female offenders – one of the most vulnerable individuals in the criminal justice system. Female prisoners are twice as likely as male prisoners to experience anxiety and depression, incidences of self-harm, and domestic violence and abuse. In addition, a number of female prisoners may suffer undiagnosed brain injuries, which cause cognitive, behavioural and emotional problems, such as loss of memory, concentration, confusion and increased aggression. From 2016-2018, the Disabilities Trust introduced a Brain Injury Linkworker (BIL) service at HMP/YOI Drake Hall (a female prison in the UK) which provided specialist support to women with a history of brain injury. During the delivery of the BIL service, the study also found that there were 196 reports of brain injuries from severe blows to the head. 96% of female offenders reported experiencing domestic abuse, 62% reported to sustaining a traumatic brain injury (TBI) due to domestic violence, and 33% reported to sustaining their first brain injury prior to committing their first offence.
Violence Policy Centre, ‘When Men Murder Women: An Analysis of 2016 Homicide Data’ (September 2018).
This annual Report of the Violence Policy Centre in the United States highlights the lethal combination of domestic violence and guns. It provides an analysis of 2016 data, the most recent year for which information is available. The study covers homicides committed by males against females in single victim/single offender incidents, and relies on data from the Federal Bureau of Investigation’s Supplementary Homicide Report (SHR).
National statistics from the study include:
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93% of women killed by men were murdered by a male they knew, and the weapon most commonly used was a gun;
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Females were 13 times more likely to be murdered by a male they knew than by a male stranger;
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Of the homicide victims who knew their attackers, 63% of female victims were wives or intimate acquaintances of their killers;
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292 women were shot and killed by either their husband or an intimate acquaintance during the course of an argument;
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More female homicides were committed with firearms than with any other weapon, such as knives, bodily force or murder by blunt objects;
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In 2016, 1,809 females were murdered by males in single victim/single offender incidents: 1,188 were white, 517 were black, 55 were Asian or Pacific Islander, 26 were American Indian or Alaskan Native, and in 23 cases the race of the victim was unidentified;
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Black women were disproportionately impacted by lethal domestic violence. In 2016, black females were murdered by men at a rate of 2.62 per 100,000, more than twice the rate of 1.03 per 100,000 for white women;
•
In 82% of all incidents where the circumstances could be determined, homicides were unrelated to any other felony crime, such as rape or robbery.
Actual or threatened physical violence or harm is among the range of behaviours that characterise domestic and family violence. In 2022-23, there were 79 incidents of domestic homicide (34% of all homicide incidents). 38 of these were intimate partner homicides and of these 38 homicides the victims were women in 34 cases. Of the remaining 41 incidents of domestic homicide in 2022-2023, 16 (or 7% of all homicide incidents) were parricides (the killing of a parent) and 11 (5%) were filicides (a parent killing a child). Four incidents (2%) were siblicide (the killing of a sibling) and 10 incidents (4%) were the homicide of another family member (including kin). Nearly one quarter of women report experiencing violence by an intimate partner. The levels of violence experienced from a former partner are statistically much higher than from a current partner, and are more likely to injure and invoke in the victim a feeling that their life is in danger. It also is the most likely form of violence to be reported by victims.
A perpetrator may intend to intimidate and induce fear in the victim through physical violence or harm yet cause minor or no visible signs of injury on the victim’s body. Victims may be kicked, slapped, bitten, or punched with a fist. They may be pushed, grabbed, or have their arm twisted or hair pulled. They may be hit with an object or have an object thrown at them. They may be burned or scalded, or threatened with a gun, knife or other weapon. The perpetrator may strangle or suffocate them. (Note that non-fatal strangulation may cause a brain injury due to lack of oxygen to the brain). The perpetrator may drive dangerously when the victim or children are passengers in the car, or smoke in the home knowing the victim has a respiratory condition, or lock the victim outside the house during the night.
A perpetrator may also commit physical violence or harm in ways that are intended to cause obvious or serious physical injury or death. A number of factors may increase a victim’s risk where:
•
the perpetrator displays generally high levels of aggression, and patterns of controlling and emotionally abusive behaviour (sometimes identified as coercive control) towards the victim
•
the perpetrator misuses alcohol or drugs
•
there are multiple episodes of physical violence or harm experienced by the victim or family members
•
the victim’s children are exposed to physical violence or harm
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the perpetrator strangles the victim
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the victim fears their life is endangered
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the victim is aged between 18 and 24 years.
Domestic and family violence may affect the victim’s physical health and functioning in acute and chronic ways, even after the violence has stopped. Apart from direct physical injuries, including traumatic brain injury, victims may experience a range of chronic health conditions for example, muscular and joint pain, headache, stomach cramping, vaginal bleeding and pain during sexual intercourse, heart failure, asthma, poor hearing and sight, allergies, malnutrition, hair loss and fatigue. These symptoms may also be mediated through a victim’s experience of high levels of stress, reduced healthy behaviours, and limited agency in making healthy lifestyle choices. In addition, domestic and family violence may disrupt a victim’s cognitive faculties for processing and coping with trauma resulting in a sense of personal failure and loss of control over their life situation, which may, over time, contribute to mental ill health.
Physical violence and harm may be one aspect of a complex pattern of behaviours engaged in by perpetrators in order to control another person, sometimes referred to as coercive control.
Actual or threatened physical violence or harm is among the range of behaviours that characterise domestic and family violence. In 2022-23, there were 79 incidents of domestic homicide (34% of all homicide incidents). 38 of these were intimate partner homicides and of these 38 homicides the victims were women in 34 cases. Of the remaining 41 incidents of domestic homicide in 2022-2023, 16 (or 7% of all homicide incidents) were parricides (the killing of a parent) and 11 (5%) were filicides (a parent killing a child). Four incidents (2%) were siblicide (the killing of a sibling) and 10 incidents (4%) were the homicide of another family member (including kin). Nearly one quarter of women report experiencing violence by an intimate partner. The levels of violence experienced from a former partner are statistically much higher than from a current partner, and are more likely to injure and invoke in the victim a feeling that their life is in danger. It also is the most likely form of violence to be reported by victims.
A perpetrator may intend to intimidate and induce fear in the victim through physical violence or harm yet cause minor or no visible signs of injury on the victim’s body. Victims may be kicked, slapped, bitten, or punched with a fist. They may be pushed, grabbed, or have their arm twisted or hair pulled. They may be hit with an object or have an object thrown at them. They may be burned or scalded, or threatened with a gun, knife or other weapon. The perpetrator may strangle or suffocate them. (Note that non-fatal strangulation may cause a brain injury due to lack of oxygen to the brain). The perpetrator may drive dangerously when the victim or children are passengers in the car, or smoke in the home knowing the victim has a respiratory condition, or lock the victim outside the house during the night.
A perpetrator may also commit physical violence or harm in ways that are intended to cause obvious or serious physical injury or death. A number of factors may increase a victim’s risk where:
•
the perpetrator displays generally high levels of aggression, and patterns of controlling and emotionally abusive behaviour (sometimes identified as coercive control) towards the victim
•
the perpetrator misuses alcohol or drugs
•
there are multiple episodes of physical violence or harm experienced by the victim or family members
•
the victim’s children are exposed to physical violence or harm
•
the perpetrator strangles the victim
•
the victim fears their life is endangered
•
the victim is aged between 18 and 24 years.
Domestic and family violence may affect the victim’s physical health and functioning in acute and chronic ways, even after the violence has stopped. Apart from direct physical injuries, including traumatic brain injury, victims may experience a range of chronic health conditions for example, muscular and joint pain, headache, stomach cramping, vaginal bleeding and pain during sexual intercourse, heart failure, asthma, poor hearing and sight, allergies, malnutrition, hair loss and fatigue. These symptoms may also be mediated through a victim’s experience of high levels of stress, reduced healthy behaviours, and limited agency in making healthy lifestyle choices. In addition, domestic and family violence may disrupt a victim’s cognitive faculties for processing and coping with trauma resulting in a sense of personal failure and loss of control over their life situation, which may, over time, contribute to mental ill health.
Physical violence and harm may be one aspect of a complex pattern of behaviours engaged in by perpetrators in order to control another person, sometimes referred to as coercive control.