Australia
Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS), Personal Safety, Australia, 2023, ABS cat no. 4906.0 (2016).
This release presents information from the Australian Bureau of Statistics’ (ABS) 2021-22 Personal Safety Survey (PSS).
The PSS collected information from persons aged 18 years and over about the nature and extent of their experiences of violence, including detailed information about experiences of:
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physical and sexual violence
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violence, emotional abuse, and economic abuse by a cohabiting partner
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stalking
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sexual harassment
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childhood abuse and witnessing parenting violence before the age of 15
This publication presents high level prevalence statistics and changes over time for key violence types collected in the survey.
Women | Men |
|---|---|
Prevalence since the age of 15 | |
2 in 5 women experienced violence (39%) | 2 in 5 men experienced violence (43%) |
1 in 5 women experienced sexual violence (22%) | 1 in 16 men experienced sexual violence (6.1%) |
1 in 3 women experienced physical violence (31%) | 2 in 5 men experienced physical violence (42%) |
1 in 5 women experienced stalking (20%) | 1 in 15 men experienced stalking (6.8%) |
Prevalence of intimate partner and family member violence since the age of 15 | |
1 in 4 women experienced violence by an intimate partner or family member (27%) | 1 in 8 men experienced violence by an intimate partner or family member (12%) |
1 in 12 women experienced violence by a family member (8.1%) | 1 in 17 men experienced violence by a family member (5.9%) |
1 in 4 women experienced violence by an intimate partner (23%) | 1 in 14 men experienced violence by an intimate partner (7.3%) |
1 in 11 women experienced violence by a boyfriend, girlfriend, or date (9.3%) | 1 in 44 men experienced violence by a boyfriend, girlfriend, or date (2.3%*) |
1 in 6 women experienced cohabitating partner violence (17%) | 1 in 18 men experienced cohabiting partner violence (5.5%) |
1 in 4 women experienced cohabiting partner emotional abuse (23%) | 1 in 7 men experienced cohabiting partner emotional abuse (14%) |
1 in 6 women experienced cohabiting partner economic abuse (16%) | 1 in 13 men experienced cohabiting economic abuse (7.8%) |
Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (2024) Family, domestic and sexual violence: Coercive control.
Data from the 2021-22 PSS show that:
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23% (2.3 million) of women and 14% (1.3 million) of men have experienced emotional abuse by a current or previous partner
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16% (1.6 million) of women and 7.8% (745,000) of men have experienced economic abuse from a current or previous partner
Emotional or economic abuse are characterised in nature by their intent to manipulate, control, isolate or intimidate the person they are aimed at, and are generally repeated. They are also commonly used to control another person’s behaviour and cause them emotional harm or fear. These data cannot be used to show the prevalence of coercive control, but they can be used to raise awareness of non-physical forms of abuse and lead to greater recognition of harm.
Beckwith, S., Lowe, L., Wall, L., Stevens, E., Carson, R., Kaspiew, R., MacDonald, J.B., McEwen, J. and Willoughby, M. (2023) Coercive Control Literature Review: Final Report, Australian Institute of Family Studies.
Overview: This report presents a literature review on coercive control in the context of domestic and family violence, with a particular focus on the understanding of, and responses to coercive control in the Australian context. Commissioned by the Australian Attorney-General's Department, this review focuses on identifying, summarising, analysing and synthesising the existing Australian academic research and evaluations on coercive control. The review highlights the complexities of defining, recognising, and responding to coercive control and identifies relevant gaps in the evidence base. Drawing from a range of quantitative and qualitative studies across scholarly and grey literature, including non-government reports, government and parliamentary reports, peak body reports, and position papers, this review captures the growing recognition of coercively controlling behaviour in the context of family and domestic violence.
The review observes that ‘psychological or emotional abuse refers to nonphysical abusive behaviours including but not limited to: demeaning, threatening, degrading and intimidating behaviours’ (p. 2).
The review identifies that emotional and psychological abuse can be part of coercive control: ‘There is also broad agreement that coercive control is not simply a form of emotional abuse (although emotional abuse can be a part of coercive control) and that it is defined by ongoing patterns of behaviours utilised by the perpetrator to control the victim-survivor that are unique to the relationship’ (p. 10)
Heather Douglas, Bridget Harris and Molly Dragiewicz, ‘Technology-Facilitated Domestic and Family Violence: Women’s Experiences’ (2018) British Journal of Criminology.
The development of technology in recent years has significantly affected women’s experiences of, and responses to, domestic violence. Devices and software, such as smartphones, cameras, Internet-connected devices, computers and platforms such as Facebook, may be used not only by perpetrators to facilitate domestic and family violence (DFV), but also by survivors and their allies to attain empowerment, and seek and share information and support. The article analyses qualitative research that outlined survivors’ experiences of technology-facilitated DFV. It draws on interviews with 65 women on up to three occasions between 2014 and 2017. At the first interview, 55 participants identified technology-facilitated abuse as part of the DFV they experienced. This result was echoed in the following two interviews. Many participants provided examples of technology being used by perpetrators to isolate, stalk and emotionally abuse them. The frequency and nature of abusive behaviours described by the women provided important contextual data to inform future research into technology-facilitated violence and abuse.
Karystianis, G., Adily, A., Schofield, P.W., et. al., ‘Automated Analysis of Domestic Violence Police Reports to Explore Abuse Types and Victim Injuries: Text Mining Study’ (2019) 21(3) Journal of Medical Internet Research.
The recording of domestic violence-related events by police is an area that requires further investigation. The study aimed to determine if an automated text mining method could identify abuse types and injuries sustained by domestic violence victims. Using data mining to evaluate 492,393 Australian domestic violence police reports, more than one-third noted victim injuries. The most common abuse type was emotional/verbal at 33.46%, followed by punching at 24.58%, and property damage at 22.27%. Bruising was the most common form of injury (29.03%), followed by cut/abrasion (28.93%), and red marks/signs (23.71%). The findings show that text mining can automatically extract information from police-recorded domestic violence events. These findings can be used to support further public health research the purpose of which is to assess the profiling of persons of interest involved in domestic violence events, and to change existing intervention policies for abuse victims.
Mouzos, Jenny, and Toni Makkai, ‘Women's Experience of Male Violence: Findings from the Australian component of the International Violence Against Women Survey (IVAWS)’ (Research and Public Policy Series No 56, Australian Institute of Criminology, 2004).
This paper reports on the findings of the International Violence Against Women Survey (IVAWS), which was conducted across Australia between December 2002 and June 2003. A total of 6,677 women aged between 18 and 69 years participated in the survey, and provided information on their experiences of physical and sexual violence. In this paper the authors identify that emotionally abusive and controlling behaviours includes behaviours of a current or former intimate partner jealously guarding the woman’s interactions with other males, limiting her access to family and friends, and damaging or destroying her property or possessions (pxv). Based on data gathered in the IVAWS survey around 30% of women reported that their current intimate partner called them names, insulted them or ‘put them down’ (p49).
Easteal, Patricia, Lorana Bartels and Reeva Mittal, ‘The Importance of Understanding the Victims’ ‘Reality’ of Domestic Violence’ (2018) Alternative Law Journal.
The authors argue that unconscious assumptions may filter out the diverse experiences and ‘realities’ of domestic violence victims. This is particularly evident in the differences between the court’s perceptions of domestic violence, and the victim’s experiences of it. Despite legal and policy reform, these assumptions may continue to affect how relevant legislation is applied and interpreted. The authors consider a small sample of recent Queensland domestic violence order breach cases to underscore the systemic failure in recognising the seriousness and harm of psychological or mental abuses (i.e. the victims’ ‘reality’ of domestic violence), and the lack of understanding of the long-term effects of domestic violence on its victims. The authors conclude that sentencing for domestic violence offences and breaches of protection orders should be underpinned by knowledge of the long-term effects of emotional abuse. Further, an analysis of Queensland cases indicates that the Benchbook is not always applied consistently. Consequently, the authors suggest the creation of a report that particularises the specific issues in each individual case in order to enhance the knowledge of judicial officers and other stakeholders, and to adjust their lenses so they can better understand the victim’s perspective.
Woolley, J. (2024) ‘Policing perpetrator suicide threats in family violence cases: competing priorities and contemporary challenges’, Policing and Society 1-14, doi: 10/1080/10439463.2024.2357647.
Abstract (extract): There has been increasing attention afforded to how a perpetrator of family violence may engage in coercive and controlling behaviour. As a form of coercive control, perpetrators may threaten to take their own life, impacting the thoughts and behaviours of victim/survivors, as well as their decision to leave the relationship. This form of coercive control challenges police in the way they manage and respond to perceived risk… Drawing from the perspectives of ten specialist family violence officers from Victoria Police, this paper will provide critical insight into the policing of suicide threats in the context of coercive control. ‘The threat of taking one’s own life is a potential form of coercive control which a family violence perpetrator can use to limit a victim/survivor’s freedom, choice, and autonomy. Threats of suicide within the context of family violence may indicate poor mental health and suicidal ideation in a perpetrator, a coercive and controlling behaviour, or potentially a combination of both. Mental health issues may result in increased risk of perpetrating family violence and have a documented correlation with intimate partner homicide (IPH). Regardless of whether the suicide threat reflects poor mental health or a form of possessiveness, threats of suicide in abusive relationships can contribute to patterns of coercive control and entrapment of a victim/survivor, whereby they feel obliged to maintain the relationship with the perpetrator to prevent them from taking their own life ... in some cases of family violence, suicide threats are a ‘deliberate and calculated response by which some men sought to maintain influence or control over women’.
International
Follingstad, Diane, et al, ‘The Role of Emotional Abuse in Physically Abusive Relationships’ (1990) 5(2) Journal of Family Violence 107.
This article is one of the earliest articles to focus on emotional abuse and provides a good overview of the literature available in 1990. This article also reports on the results of a study involving 234 women being interviewed to assess the relationship of emotional abuse to physical abuse. Six major types of emotional abuse were identified: threats of abuse, ridicule, jealousy, threats to change the marriage, restriction of freedom and damage to property. 99% of interviewees experienced psychological or emotional abuse. Analyses determined that ridicule was the type of emotional abuse that the highest percentage of participants reported as the most negative form of emotional abuse (p117). The authors speculate that this may be because ridicule is a form of emotional abuse that ‘attacks women’s sense of self-esteem and destroys their ability to feel good about themselves’. 72% of the women in the study reported that emotional abuse had a more severe impact on them than physical abuse (regardless of the level of physical abuse reported) (p114). Women reporting that emotional abuse had a more severe impact were more likely to believe that threats would be carried out (p115).
National Judges Association, Domestic Violence and the Courtroom: Knowing the Issues… Understanding the Victim (n.d.).
This resource provides practical guidance for judges in engaging with victims of domestic violence in the courtroom, including information on the various forms of emotional abuse. ‘Gaslighting’ is one such form of emotional abuse, in which the perpetrator undermines the victim’s feelings and memories, which distorts the victim’s perception of reality, and ‘destroys the possibility of honest communication’ (p 5). This behaviour also increases feelings of confusion and insecurity in the victim (p 5).
Sackett, Leslie A, and Daniel G Saunders, ‘The Impact of Different Forms of Psychological Abuse on Battered Women’ (1999) 14(1) Violence and Victims 105.
Battered women receiving either shelter (n = 30) or non-shelter services (n = 30) from a domestic violence agency were interviewed regarding psychological abuse and its aftermath. Four types of abuse were derived: ridiculing of traits, criticising behaviour, ignoring, and jealous control. Sheltered women experienced ridicule and jealous control more often than non-sheltered women. For the entire sample, ridiculing of traits was rated as the most severe form. Ignoring was the strongest predictor of low self-esteem. Both psychological abuse and physical abuse contributed independently to depression and low self-esteem. However, fear of being abused was uniquely predicted by psychological abuse.
Sweet, Paige, ‘The Sociology of Gaslighting’ (2019) 84(5) American Sociological Review 851-875
Gaslighting is a form of ‘psychological abuse aimed at making victims feel crazy, creating a surreal interpersonal environment’. Despite its increasing recognition as an abusive power tactic, it has largely been ignored by sociologists. This article proposes that gaslighting is primarily a sociological, rather than psychological, phenomenon. It should be understood as stemming from social inequalities, including gender, and being performed in ‘power-laden intimate relationships’. This article argues that ‘gaslighting is consequential when perpetrators mobilise gender-based stereotypes and structural and institutional inequalities against victims to manipulate their realities’. Through an analysis of domestic violence as a strategic case study, the author shows how abusers mobilise gendered stereotypes; structural vulnerabilities related to race, nationality, and sexuality; and institutional inequalities against victims to erode their realities.
Australian and international studies demonstrate the prevalence of emotional and psychological abuse as a form of domestic and family violence that may be part of a broader and complex pattern of abusive behaviours experienced by a victim which may be understood as coercive control.
Australian reports suggest around 23% of women and 14% of men have experienced emotional abuse by a current or previous partner.
Emotional or psychological abuse may include verbal, non-verbal or physical acts by the perpetrator that are intended to exercise dominance, control or coercion over the victim; degrade the victim’s emotional or cognitive abilities or sense of self-worth; or induce feelings of fear and intimidation in the victim.
Verbal attacks by the perpetrator may involve jealous control, ridicule, put-downs, name calling and humiliation, and may be focused on the victim’s intelligence, sexuality, appearance, capacity as a parent or intimate partner, and unfavourable comparisons with others. For example in a criminal case the male perpetrator’s abuse of his female intimate partner included: ‘insisting that she sleep outside the house, and without access to amenities such as a toilet; insisting that the children refer to her by demeaning names such as “slut”, “whore”, “moll”, and not “mother”, or “mum”; insisting the children not show affection for her; and generally treating her in a humiliating and abusive manner, including attempting to persuade her to engage in a sexual act with a dog.
Non-verbal and physical acts of emotional or psychological abuse by the perpetrator may also involve:
•
stalking or harassing the victim in or around the workplace
•
threatening to divorce or abandon the victim, or to have an affair if the victim fails to comply with the perpetrator’s demands
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threatening to commit suicide if the victim ends or leaves the relationship
•
monitoring the victim’s whereabouts
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associated menacing or intimidatory behaviours or gestures directed repeatedly and strategically at the victim including angry verbal outbursts, staring, silence, ignoring and withdrawal of affection.
Research indicates that threats of physical violence, restrictions on the victim’s freedoms and damage to the victim’s personal property are strong predictors of actual violence causing severe injury or death.
Past perceptions of emotional or psychological abuse as having fewer, less severe and more transient consequences than physical violence have been superseded by a growing understanding of its impacts on victims including increased rates of serious or chronic illness, disability or impairment, post-traumatic stress disorder, depression, misuse of alcohol and drugs, dysfunctional parenting and long-term low self-esteem.
In many cases victims describe the cumulative daily emotional or psychological abuse as having a more debilitating effect on their self-esteem and ability to cope with their situation than the physical violence they have also experienced. Victims also report that threats of violence can be as effective as actual violence for the control they exercise and fear they induce, often preventing the victim from leaving the abusive relationship.
Emotional and psychological abuse may be one aspect of a complex pattern of behaviours engaged in by perpetrators in order to control another person, sometimes referred to as coercive control.
Australian and international studies demonstrate the prevalence of emotional and psychological abuse as a form of domestic and family violence that may be part of a broader and complex pattern of abusive behaviours experienced by a victim which may be understood as coercive control.
Australian reports suggest around 23% of women and 14% of men have experienced emotional abuse by a current or previous partner.
Emotional or psychological abuse may include verbal, non-verbal or physical acts by the perpetrator that are intended to exercise dominance, control or coercion over the victim; degrade the victim’s emotional or cognitive abilities or sense of self-worth; or induce feelings of fear and intimidation in the victim.
Verbal attacks by the perpetrator may involve jealous control, ridicule, put-downs, name calling and humiliation, and may be focused on the victim’s intelligence, sexuality, appearance, capacity as a parent or intimate partner, and unfavourable comparisons with others. For example in a criminal case the male perpetrator’s abuse of his female intimate partner included: ‘insisting that she sleep outside the house, and without access to amenities such as a toilet; insisting that the children refer to her by demeaning names such as “slut”, “whore”, “moll”, and not “mother”, or “mum”; insisting the children not show affection for her; and generally treating her in a humiliating and abusive manner, including attempting to persuade her to engage in a sexual act with a dog.
Non-verbal and physical acts of emotional or psychological abuse by the perpetrator may also involve:
•
stalking or harassing the victim in or around the workplace
•
threatening to divorce or abandon the victim, or to have an affair if the victim fails to comply with the perpetrator’s demands
•
threatening to commit suicide if the victim ends or leaves the relationship
•
monitoring the victim’s whereabouts
•
associated menacing or intimidatory behaviours or gestures directed repeatedly and strategically at the victim including angry verbal outbursts, staring, silence, ignoring and withdrawal of affection.
Research indicates that threats of physical violence, restrictions on the victim’s freedoms and damage to the victim’s personal property are strong predictors of actual violence causing severe injury or death.
Past perceptions of emotional or psychological abuse as having fewer, less severe and more transient consequences than physical violence have been superseded by a growing understanding of its impacts on victims including increased rates of serious or chronic illness, disability or impairment, post-traumatic stress disorder, depression, misuse of alcohol and drugs, dysfunctional parenting and long-term low self-esteem.
In many cases victims describe the cumulative daily emotional or psychological abuse as having a more debilitating effect on their self-esteem and ability to cope with their situation than the physical violence they have also experienced. Victims also report that threats of violence can be as effective as actual violence for the control they exercise and fear they induce, often preventing the victim from leaving the abusive relationship.
Emotional and psychological abuse may be one aspect of a complex pattern of behaviours engaged in by perpetrators in order to control another person, sometimes referred to as coercive control.