Australia
Clarke, J. et al (2024) ‘Exploring the theological context to domestic and family violence’, Violence Against Women (online first) doi: 10.1177/10778012241254849.
Abstract: This article explores the theological drivers of domestic and family violence (DFV)—specifically intimate partner violence—by engaging with ecclesiastical beliefs and practices of the Lutheran Church of Australia (LCA). Key theological, policy, and public documents were analyzed to understand gender relations, gender roles, marriage, ordination, ethical behavior, and responses to DFV. Findings from the document analysis demonstrate church practice and policy reforms underway in addressing violence against women and supporting safety. Simultaneously, the documents show contested and troubled positions regarding gender relations, the theological context to gender roles and responsibilities and the church's journey of debating (re)configuration of its organizational structure and responsibilities.
The article concludes that ‘theological drivers of church-based gender and social norms that discriminate against Lutheran women and limit equality in gender relations through discourses and practices “othering” women, are at risk of normalizing and condoning unequal relations between women and men in intimate relationships.’
Powell, R. & Pepper, M. (2021). National Anglican Family Violence Research Report: Top Line Results. NCLS Research Report. NCLS Research.
Extract: This report provides a top line overview of results from three studies that make up the National Anglican Family Violence Project (NAFVP), undertaken between 2019 and early 2021. The aim of this research project is to investigate the nature and prevalence of intimate partner violence (IPV) among those with a connection to the Anglican Church of Australia.
NAFVP Prevalence Study: How prevalent is intimate partner violence among Australians who identify as Anglican?
Significant observations included:
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The prevalence of intimate partner violence among Anglicans was the same or higher than in the wider Australian community.
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The prevalence of intimate partner violence among church-attending Anglicans was the same or higher than among other Anglicans.
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The prevalence of intimate partner violence was higher among women than men.
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Most Anglican victims of domestic violence did not seek help from Anglican churches.
NAFVP Clergy and Lay Leader Study: What are the attitudes and practices regarding IPV among Anglican clergy and local church leaders?
Significant observations of Clergy and Lay Leader participants included that:
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Clergy and lay leaders were aware of the widespread nature of the problem of domestic violence in Australia, but less aware of its prevalence in church communities.
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Most clergy believed that Scripture is misused by the abuser in Christian families.
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Most clergy had been aware of victims of abuse in their churches and had dealt with specific domestic violence situations as part of their ministry.
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Clergy confidence in their personal capacity to respond to domestic violence was low to moderate.
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A minority of clergy felt very familiar with support services or very confident to refer people to them.
NAFVP Experience Study: What is the nature of experiences of intimate partner violence (IPV) for those with a connection with Anglican churches? How has the Anglican Church featured in these experiences.
Views expressed by participants with a connection with Anglican churches and direct experience of IPV included:
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Faith and church both assist and hinder those who are experiencing domestic violence.
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Although unintended, Christian teachings sometimes contribute to and potentially amplify situations of domestic violence.
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Perpetrators misuse Christian teachings and positional power.
Tuong, M. and Ghafournia, N. (2024) Understanding spiritual and religious abuse in the context of intimate partner violence, Melbourne: AIFS.
Abstract: While spiritual and religious abuse is a lesser known type of violence in the context of intimate partner violence (IPV), it is associated with negative emotional, psychological and trauma-related impacts. This paper provides an overview of the evidence on spiritual and religious abuse in the context of IPV and its impact on victim-survivors. The paper also provides some considerations for practitioners and other professionals working to support individuals experiencing spiritual and religious abuse.
Key messages from this review include:
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Spiritual abuse is a type of emotional and psychological abuse where a person uses coercive and controlling behaviours within a religious or spiritual context (e.g. using religious teachings to justify or minimise abusive behaviours).
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Spiritual and religious abuse may be subtle and difficult for practitioners and service providers to recognise without other forms of abuse (e.g. physical violence) being present.
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Spirituality/religion can have a dual role in relation to intimate partner violence (IPV). It can serve as an important coping mechanism for women experiencing IPV but can also contribute to the drivers of IPV.
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Spiritual and religious abuse is not limited or confined to any particular religions/faiths or communities.
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Spiritual and religious abuse is linked to emotional and psychological distress, social isolation, and negative feelings about one’s faith and identity.
International
Aune, Kristin, and Rebecca Barnes, ‘In Churches Too: Church Responses to Domestic Abuse – A Case Study of Cumbria’ (March 2018).
This report provides detailed analysis of experiences of, and church responses to, domestic abuse. Particularly, it provides information regarding spiritual abuse, where the perpetrator forces certain beliefs or practices on the victim, prevents the victim from practising their religion, or uses the victim’s faith against them (p 28). Overall, the results of the study indicate that women were far more likely than men to report experiences of all forms of abuse, including spiritual abuse (p 33). While substantially less common than other forms of abuse (p 57), spiritual abuse was still reported by a significant number of participants, with 21.8 percent of female participants, 11.1 percent of male participants, and 18.8 percent of all participants reporting at least one experience of spiritual abuse (p 33).
Bagwell-Gray, M. et al.,(2021) ‘Women’s Reproductive Coercion and Pregnancy Avoidance: Associations With Homicide Risk, Sexual Violence, and Religious Abuse’, Violence Against Women 27 (12-13):2294-2312 doi: 10.1177/10778012211005566
This survey study explores patterns of reproductive coercion (RC) and pregnancy avoidance (PA) among women recruited from domestic violence shelters in the southwestern United States (N = 661). Younger, African American, and Hispanic women were more likely to experience RC. Homicide risk, sexual intimate partner violence (IPV), and religious abuse were associated with RC, and RC and homicide risk were associated with PA. We discuss implications of the associations between RC and PA and their links to religious abuse, sexual IPV, and homicide risk.
Twenty-one percent of the sample indicated that their partner used religious teachings or traditions as a reason to control daily activities. 217 women (33%) experienced reproductive coercion. Specifically, 31% (n = 207) of participants reported their partner tried to get them pregnant when they did not want to be pregnant and 17% (n = 114) reported that their partner physically hurt them or threatened to leave if they did not get pregnant.
Bent-Goodley, Tricia B, and Dawnovise N Fowler, ‘Spiritual and Religious Abuse: Expanding What Is Known About Domestic Violence’ (2008) 21 Journal of Women and Social Work 282.
This article reports the outcomes of three focus groups in three diverse communities of faith in the African American community. The participants identified forms of spiritual abuse including (p288):
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the abuser telling the victim that God has forgotten her because of her sins,
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abusers who denied a woman’s ability to attend church,
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abusers who emphasised the need for the woman to forgive, despite abuse.
Cares, Alison, and Gretchen Cusick, ‘Risks and Opportunities of Faith and Culture: The Case of Abused Jewish Women’ (2012) 27(5) Journal of Family Violence 427.
This article considers how a perpetrator of domestic and family violence may exploit the victim’s faith or subculture and, alternatively, how the victim’s faith or subculture may be a source of strength and support for the victim. The researchers analysed case files from a Jewish domestic violence services agency. The study found that partners of abused Jewish women often perverted the laws and traditions of Judaism to control their partners. It also found that being part of an integrated cultural and religious community offered support for some victims.
Dehan, Nicole, and Zipi Levi, ‘Spiritual Abuse: An Additional Dimension of Abuse Experienced by Abused Haredi (Ultraorthodox) Jewish Wives’ (2009) 15(11) Violence Against Women 1294.
This article aims to conceptualize spiritual abuse as an additional dimension to physical, psychological, sexual, and economic abuse. Based on a small research study involving a group of eight abused women, spiritual abuse is defined by the researchers as any attempt to impair the woman’s spiritual life, spiritual self, or spiritual well-being, with three levels of intensity:
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belittling her spiritual worth, beliefs, or deeds;
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preventing her from performing spiritual acts; and
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causing her to transgress spiritual obligations or prohibitions.
The concept and its typology are illustrated by means of examples from the women’s abusive experiences.
Ellis, H et al, (2022) ‘Religious/Spiritual Abuse and Trauma: A Systematic Review of the Empirical Literature’, Spirituality in Clinical Practice, 9(4): 213-231.
The authors sought to review empirical research on religious/spiritual (R/S) abuse and trauma. Their systematic review identified 25 studies that met the inclusion criteria. The empirical findings of the studies are organized into eight sections: (a) definitions of R/S abuse and trauma,(b) prevalence of R/S abuse and trauma, (c) entering/exiting abusive religious communities, (d) the intersection of R/S abuse and trauma and domestic violence, (e) the role of the R/S community in the abuse, (f) negative outcomes associated with R/S abuse and trauma, (g) identity changes associated with R/S abuse and trauma, and (h) prevention and clinical treatment of R/S abuse and trauma. Based on their review the authors define R/S abuse and trauma as a misuse of power in an R/S setting resulting in psychological and spiritual harm. The authors observe that R/S abuse may be inflicted in a secondary way by religious institutions.
Knickmeyer, Nicole, Heidi Levitt and Sharon Horne, ‘Putting on Sunday Best: The Silencing of Battered Women within Christian Faith Communities (2010) 20(1) Feminism Psychology 94.
This research reports on a small qualitative interview study involving 10 Christian-identified women from diverse denominations and racial/ethnic and socioeconomic backgrounds who had experienced intimate partner violence. The participants reported forms of spiritual abuse including abusive partners:
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using religious teachings, especially about male leadership and female submission within marriage, manipulatively as a means of exerting total control in the relationship;
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using religious teachings about the sanctity of marriage and God’s disapproval of divorce as a means of maintaining control over the relationship;
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enforcing conformity through the invocation of religious standards along with threats of violence (pp102-104).
Australian and international research indicates the need to recognise spiritual and cultural abuse as a form of domestic and family violence that may be part of a broader and complex pattern of behaviours experienced by a victim. While they may be interrelated with broader patterns of physical, psychological, sexual, economic and other forms of violence, spiritual and cultural abuse have unique dimensions where spirituality or cultural identity is central to the victim’s way of life, or their personal sense of meaning, purpose and wellbeing.
As with many forms of domestic and family violence, spiritual and cultural abuse are means by which a perpetrator can exercise dominance, control or coercion over a victim (often identified as coercive control) who is especially vulnerable due to their spirituality or cultural identity. Behaviours may include any form of domestic and family violence and may involve the perpetrator:
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belittling the victim’s spiritual or cultural worth, beliefs or practices
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violating or preventing the victim’s spiritual or cultural practices
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denying the victim access to their spiritual or cultural community
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causing the victim to transgress spiritual or cultural obligations or prohibitions
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forcing on the victim spiritual or cultural beliefs and practices that are in conflict with their own
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manipulating spiritual readings and practices to justify abuse
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misusing the traditions, practices and expectations of the spiritual or cultural community to which the victim belongs as a means of normalising or suppressing the abusive behaviours, silencing the victim, or preventing the victim from seeking support and help.
Some specific examples of these behaviours include the perpetrator:
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denouncing the victim’s prayers as having no purpose or value
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insisting that the victim honour the perpetrator rather than the victim’s cultural or spiritual beliefs
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asserting his entitlement to a dowry from the victim’s family, or punishing the victim or her family for what he claims to be an insufficient dowry
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forcing the victim to undergo partial or total removal of her external genitalia, or be subjected to any other injury to her genital organs for reasons that are not medically warranted (sometimes referred to as female genital mutilation or FGM)
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publicly humiliating the victim during spiritual or cultural ceremonies
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preventing the victim from wearing clothing prescribed by spiritual or cultural practices
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preventing the victim from attending their chosen place of worship
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causing the victim to transgress spiritual or cultural belief systems by forcing the victim to drink alcohol or to have intercourse during menstruation
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citing biblical readings in claiming the eternal sanctity of marriage and God’s disapproval of divorce
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compelling the victim to keep the abuse secret by threatening that disclosure will result in the victim being disbelieved, shunned and shamed by their spiritual or cultural community.
A review of the literature undertaken by researchers at the Australian Institute of Family Studies (AIFS) found that:
•
Spiritual and religious abuse may be subtle and difficult for practitioners and service providers to recognise without other forms of abuse (e.g. physical violence) being present.
•
Spirituality/religion can have a dual role in relation to intimate partner violence (IPV). It can serve as an important coping mechanism for women experiencing IPV but can also contribute to the drivers of IPV.
•
Spiritual and religious abuse is linked to emotional and psychological distress, social isolation, and negative feelings about one’s faith and identity
Australian and international research indicates the need to recognise spiritual and cultural abuse as a form of domestic and family violence that may be part of a broader and complex pattern of behaviours experienced by a victim. While they may be interrelated with broader patterns of physical, psychological, sexual, economic and other forms of violence, spiritual and cultural abuse have unique dimensions where spirituality or cultural identity is central to the victim’s way of life, or their personal sense of meaning, purpose and wellbeing.
As with many forms of domestic and family violence, spiritual and cultural abuse are means by which a perpetrator can exercise dominance, control or coercion over a victim (often identified as coercive control) who is especially vulnerable due to their spirituality or cultural identity. Behaviours may include any form of domestic and family violence and may involve the perpetrator:
•
belittling the victim’s spiritual or cultural worth, beliefs or practices
•
violating or preventing the victim’s spiritual or cultural practices
•
denying the victim access to their spiritual or cultural community
•
causing the victim to transgress spiritual or cultural obligations or prohibitions
•
forcing on the victim spiritual or cultural beliefs and practices that are in conflict with their own
•
manipulating spiritual readings and practices to justify abuse
•
misusing the traditions, practices and expectations of the spiritual or cultural community to which the victim belongs as a means of normalising or suppressing the abusive behaviours, silencing the victim, or preventing the victim from seeking support and help.
Some specific examples of these behaviours include the perpetrator:
•
denouncing the victim’s prayers as having no purpose or value
•
insisting that the victim honour the perpetrator rather than the victim’s cultural or spiritual beliefs
•
asserting his entitlement to a dowry from the victim’s family, or punishing the victim or her family for what he claims to be an insufficient dowry
•
forcing the victim to undergo partial or total removal of her external genitalia, or be subjected to any other injury to her genital organs for reasons that are not medically warranted (sometimes referred to as female genital mutilation or FGM)
•
publicly humiliating the victim during spiritual or cultural ceremonies
•
preventing the victim from wearing clothing prescribed by spiritual or cultural practices
•
preventing the victim from attending their chosen place of worship
•
causing the victim to transgress spiritual or cultural belief systems by forcing the victim to drink alcohol or to have intercourse during menstruation
•
citing biblical readings in claiming the eternal sanctity of marriage and God’s disapproval of divorce
•
compelling the victim to keep the abuse secret by threatening that disclosure will result in the victim being disbelieved, shunned and shamed by their spiritual or cultural community.
A review of the literature undertaken by researchers at the Australian Institute of Family Studies (AIFS) found that:
•
Spiritual and religious abuse may be subtle and difficult for practitioners and service providers to recognise without other forms of abuse (e.g. physical violence) being present.
•
Spirituality/religion can have a dual role in relation to intimate partner violence (IPV). It can serve as an important coping mechanism for women experiencing IPV but can also contribute to the drivers of IPV.
•
Spiritual and religious abuse is linked to emotional and psychological distress, social isolation, and negative feelings about one’s faith and identity